Table 1 Maternal and children’s characteristics in underweight, normal weight and overweight/obesity children
Characteristics | Underweight | Normal weight | Overweight/obesity | P value |
|---|---|---|---|---|
n = 86 | n = 286 | n = 121 | ||
Maternal characteristics | ||||
Pre-pregnancy BMI (kg/m2) | < 0.001 | |||
< 18.5 | 19 (22.1) | 58 (20.3) | 10 (8.3) | |
18.5–23.9 | 60 (69.8) | 175 (61.2) | 75 (62) | |
24–27.9 | 7 (8.1) | 45 (15.7) | 23 (19) | |
≥ 28 | 0 (0) | 8 (2.8) | 13 (10.7) | |
Age at delivery (years) | 29 ± 4 | 29.0 ± 4 | 28.0 ± 4 | 0.467 |
Education years | 0.079 | |||
< 9 | 0 (0) | 4 (1.4) | 5 (4.1) | |
9–12 | 5 (5.8) | 35 (12.2) | 10 (8.3) | |
≥ 12 | 81 (94.2) | 247 (86.4) | 106 (87.6) | |
Gestational diabetes mellitus | 11 (12.8) | 30 (10.5) | 17 (14) | 0.564 |
Antibiotic use in pregnancy | 2 (2.3) | 12 (4.2) | 3 (2.5) | 0.659 |
Smoking in pregnancy | 0 (0) | 1 (0.3) | 0 (0) | 1.000 |
Annual family income | 0.045 | |||
< $15,650 | 23 (26.7) | 76 (26.6) | 36 (29.8) | |
$15,650-31,300 | 34 (39.5) | 95 (33.2) | 55 (45.5) | |
≥ $31,300 | 16 (18.6) | 54 (18.9) | 9 (7.4) | |
Refuse to answer | 13 (15.1) | 61 (21.3) | 21 (17.4) | |
Mode of delivery | 0.324 | |||
Vaginal | 28 (32.6) | 78 (27.3) | 28 (23.1) | |
Caesarean section | 58 (67.4) | 208 (72.7) | 93 (76.9) | |
Primipara | 75 (87.2) | 249 (87.1) | 109 (90.1) | 0.683 |
Duration of breastfeeding ≥6 months (n = 357) | 52 (92.9) | 187 (89.5) | 80 (87) | 0.527 |
Paternal BMI (kg/m2) | < 0.001 | |||
< 18.5 | 6 (7.0) | 7 (2.4) | 0 (0) | |
18.5–23.9 | 48 (55.8) | 139 (48.6) | 39 (32.2) | |
24–27.9 | 26 (30.2) | 111 (38.8) | 53 (43.8) | |
≥ 28 | 6 (7.0) | 29 (10.1) | 29 (24) | |
Total GWG (kg) | 15.7 ± 4.4 | 16.2 ± 5.8 | 17.3 ± 5.6 | 0.048 |
1st-trimester GWG (kg) | 2.4 ± 2.3 | 2.4 ± 3.4 | 3.1 ± 3.6 | 0.130 |
2nd-trimester GWG (kg) | 6.8 ± 2.3 | 7.1 ± 2.4 | 7.0 ± 3.1 | 0.572 |
3rd-trimester GWG (kg) | 6.6 ± 2.6 | 6.7 ± 2.7 | 7.2 ± 2.8 | 0.263 |
Children’s characteristics | ||||
Boys | 40 (46.5) | 139 (48.6) | 72 (59.5) | 0.088 |
Birth weight (kg) | 3267 ± 355 | 3446 ± 410 | 3564 ± 437 | < 0.001 |
LGA | 0 (0) | 20 (7) | 13 (10.7) | 0.009 |
BMI at 1 year of age (kg/m2) (n = 308) | 16.4 ± 1.0 | 17.3 ± 1.5 | 17.9 ± 2.2 | < 0.001 |
BMI at 2 years of age (kg/m2) (n = 355) | 15.0 ± 0.9 | 16.0 ± 1.3 | 17.0 ± 1.4 | < 0.001 |
BMI at 5 years of age (kg/m2) | 13.6 ± 0.4 | 15.3 ± 1.0 | 17.6 ± 1.7 | < 0.001 |
FMI at 5 years of age (kg/m2) | 1.6 ± 0.5 | 2.4 ± 1.0 | 4.0 ± 1.6 | < 0.001 |
Body fat percentage at 5 years of age (%) | 12.0 ± 3.5 | 16.2 ± 4.4 | 22.7 ± 6.7 | < 0.001 |
FFMI at 5 years of age (kg/m2) | 12.0 ± 0.5 | 12.8 ± 0.7 | 13.5 ± 1.1 | < 0.001 |
Waist-height-ratio (n = 490) | 0.44 ± 0.02 | 0.46 ± 0.03 | 0.51 ± 0.04 | < 0.001 |